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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cepstrum</span></h1>
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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="de" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="de" dir="ltr"><p>Das <b>Cepstrum</b> (Plural <i>Cepstra</i>) ist das Ergebnis einer mathematischen Transformation im Bereich der <a href="Fourier-Analysis" title="Fourier-Analysis">Fourier-Analyse</a> und kann als Analogon zum <a href="Frequenzspektrum" title="Frequenzspektrum">Frequenzspektrum</a> betrachtet werden. Der Begriff <i>Cepstrum</i> wurde 1963 in einem Artikel von Bogert, Healy und Tukey<sup id="cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bogert_19632-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> eingeführt. Das Cepstrum wird verwendet, um periodische Strukturen in Frequenzspektren zu analysieren<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Solche Strukturen entstehen durch Echos/Reflexionen im Zeitsignal, oder durch das Auftreten von harmonischen Frequenzen wie z. B. <a href="Oberton" title="Oberton">Obertönen</a>. Mathematisch behandelt das Cepstrum das Problem der inversen <a href="Faltung_(Mathematik)" title="Faltung (Mathematik)">Faltung</a> (Dekonvolution) von Signalen im Frequenzbereich<sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p><p>Referenzen auf den Artikel von Bogert, Healy und Tukey werden häufig falsch zitiert: Die Begriffe im Titel „quefrency“, „alanysis“, „cepstrum“ und „saphe“<sup id="cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bogert_19632-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wurden durch die Autoren neu eingeführt, indem Buchstaben in den bekannten englischsprachigen Begriffen „frequency“, „analysis“, „spectrum“ und „phase“ anders angeordnet wurden.
</p><p>So ergibt sich der Name „Cepstrum“ aus der Vertauschung der ersten vier Buchstaben von „Spectrum“. Während das Spektrum als Funktion der Frequenz definiert ist, ist das „Cepstrum“ eine Funktion der „Quefrenz“ (quefrency). Die Quefrenz hat als Einheit die „Zeit“.<sup id="cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bogert_19632-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Quefrenz kann als Maß für die Zeitverschiebung von Mustern im Zeitbereich interpretiert werden.
</p><p>Das Cepstrum ist das Ergebnis der folgenden Berechnungsreihenfolge:
</p>
<ol><li>Transformation eines Signals vom Zeitbereich in den Frequenzbereich</li>
<li>Logarithmieren der spektralen Amplituden</li>
<li>Transformation in den Frequenz-Bereich, in dem die unabhängige Variable wieder eine Zeitachse darstellt<sup id="cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bogert_19632-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>
<p>Für das Cepstrum gibt es zahlreiche Anwendungen:<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>die Behandlung von Interferenzen von Signalen durch Echos oder Reflexionen (Radar-, Sonar- und Seismologische Anwendungen)</li>
<li>Bestimmung der <a href="Grundfrequenz" title="Grundfrequenz">Grundfrequenz</a> der Stimme eines Sprechers</li>
<li><a href="Spracherkennung" title="Spracherkennung">Spracherkennung</a> und Analyse</li>
<li>Medizinische Anwendungen im Bereich <a href="Elektroenzephalografie" title="Elektroenzephalografie">Elektroenzephalogramm</a> (EEG) und Gehirnströme</li>
<li>Analyse von Vibrationen von Maschinen, insbesondere im Zusammenhang mit Störungen an Getrieben, Turbinen oder anderen rotierenden Elementen<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randall_2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beckhoff_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beckhoff-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Vom Cepstrum gibt es zahlreiche Varianten. Für deren Benennung bleiben wir bei den Englischen Fachbegriffen. Die wichtigsten Varianten sind:
</p>
<ul><li>Power Cepstrum: Logarithmiert wird das „Power Spectrum“ bzw. das <a href="Autoleistungsspektrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoleistungsspektrum">Autoleistungsspektrum</a></li>
<li>Complex Cepstrum: Logarithmiert wird das <a href="Frequenzspektrum" title="Frequenzspektrum">Frequenzspektrum</a>, das durch die Fourier-Analyse ermittelt wird</li>
<li>Real Cepstrum: Logarithmiert werden die Amplitudenwerte des Frequenzspektrums. Die Phase wird nicht verwendet.</li></ul>
<p>Es existieren jedoch weitere Varianten, die im Folgenden nicht genauer erklärt werden.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abkürzungen"><span id="Abk.C3.BCrzungen"></span>Abkürzungen</h2></div>
<p>Folgende Abkürzungen werden verwendet, um das Cepstrum detaillierter zu erklären:
</p>
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<th>Abkürzung
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<th>Erklärung
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(t)}">
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<td>Signal, als Funktion der Zeit
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C}">
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<td>Cepstrum
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/205d4b91000d9dcf1a5bbabdfa6a8395fa60b676.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.927ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
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<td><a href="Fourier-Transformation" title="Fourier-Transformation">Fourier-Transformation</a>: Die Abkürzung kann sowohl für eine kontinuierliche Fourier Transformation stehen, als auch für eine <a href="Diskrete_Fourier-Transformation" title="Diskrete Fourier-Transformation">Diskrete Fouriertransformation</a> (DFT) oder eine <a href="Z-Transformation" title="Z-Transformation">z-Transformation</a>, da die z-Transformation als Verallgemeinerung der Fourier-Transformation angesehen werden kann.<sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}^{-1}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}^{-1}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/798153399d91ed4f7c88fa012bd0fabe708c4de2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.336ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}^{-1}}" loading="lazy"></span>
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<td>Inverse Fourier Transformation
</td></tr>
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}}</annotation>
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<td>Leistungsspektrum (Power spectrum)
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \log(x)}">
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<td><a href="Logarithmus" title="Logarithmus">Logarithmus</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>: Die Wahl der Basis <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> hängt vom Benutzer ab. In manchen Artikeln wird sie nicht spezifiziert, andere Artikel bevorzugen die Basis 10 oder e. Die Wahl der Basis hat keinen Einfluss auf die grundlegenden Berechnungsregeln. Aber manchmal hat der Natürliche Logarithmus mit Basis e Vorteile (Siehe Abschnitt: Komplexes Cepstrum)
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|x\right|}">
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<td><a href="Betragsfunktion" title="Betragsfunktion">Absolutwert</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>: Falls <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> eine <a href="Komplexe_Zahl" title="Komplexe Zahl">komplex Zahl</a> ist, wird der Absolutwert aus dem Realteil und dem Imaginärteil gebildet, mit Hilfe des Satzes von Pythagoras.
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<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi }">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/72b1f30316670aee6270a28334bdf4f5072cdde4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.385ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi }" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><a href="Phasenwinkel" title="Phasenwinkel">Phasenwinkel</a> einer komplexen Zahl
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Power_Cepstrum">Power Cepstrum</h2></div>
<p>Das „Cepstrum“ wurde ursprünglich als <i>Power Cepstrum</i> wie folgt definiert:<sup id="cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bogert_19632-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log \left(\left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}">
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<mo>|</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log \left(\left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/71addb4750ef87b86cdf5469afe069c448e09b63.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:32.265ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log \left(\left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die hauptsächlichen Anwendungen des <i>Power Cepstrum</i> sind im Bereich der Analyse von Vibrationen und Geräuschen oder anderer Schwingungen. Es dient als ergänzendes Werkzeug bei der <a href="Fourier-Analysis" title="Fourier-Analysis">Spektral-Analyse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Manchmal wird es auch folgendermaßen definiert:<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}\left\{\log \left(\left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}\left\{\log \left(\left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1af65b47bd344d135ddd67ed9074e7599d8f9897.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:29.856ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}\left\{\log \left(\left|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}\right|^{2}\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Aufgrund dieser Formel nennt man das Cepstrum auch „Spektrum eines Spektrums“. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass sich die beiden Formeln tatsächlich entsprechen. Die Form des Cepstrums ist gleich. Der Unterschied ist lediglich ein Skalierungsfaktor<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> der auch nachträglich geändert werden kann. Manche Veröffentlichungen bevorzugen die zweite Formel.<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randall_2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Andere Schreibweisen sind möglich, da der Logarithmus des Power Spektrums dem Logarithmus des Amplituden-Spektrums entspricht, wenn man einen Skalierungsfaktor 2 anwendet:<sup id="cite_ref-Beckhoff_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beckhoff-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \log(|{\mathcal {F}}|^{2})=2\log(|{\mathcal {F}}|)}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \log(|{\mathcal {F}}|^{2})=2\log(|{\mathcal {F}}|)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4160315dba9184901748be9a96dc03d49188a0e9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.705ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \log(|{\mathcal {F}}|^{2})=2\log(|{\mathcal {F}}|)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>und daher:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{2\log \left(|{\mathcal {F}}|\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{2\log \left(|{\mathcal {F}}|\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68bc8dbf7ac26eb46958341cb801758c92f51675.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:24.766ex; height:4.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{p}=\left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{2\log \left(|{\mathcal {F}}|\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>, oder</dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{p}=4\cdot \left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log \left(|{\mathcal {F}}|\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}">
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{p}=4\cdot \left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log \left(|{\mathcal {F}}|\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/17a1e7ac92975bebf5a58abaa7e68710da8bc6b4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:26.058ex; height:4.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{p}=4\cdot \left|{\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log \left(|{\mathcal {F}}|\right)\right\}\right|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>, womit man einen Zusammenhang zum <i>Real Cepstrum</i> hergestellt hat (siehe unten).</dd></dl>
<p>Weiterhin soll erwähnt werden, dass die Quadrat-Bildung am Ende der Terme von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{p}}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{p}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6bc37470431fbf62081b69ba870ad3f855178361.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.721ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{p}}" loading="lazy"></span> durchaus umstritten ist. Manche Veröffentlichungen sagen, sie sei (mathematisch) überflüssig<sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, und andere Veröffentlichungen lassen sie einfach weg<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randall_2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Allerdings treten durch die Quadrierung die Spitzen im Cepstrum bei der grafischen Darstellung optisch besser zu Tage.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Complex_Cepstrum">Complex Cepstrum</h2></div>
<p>Das <i>Complex Cepstrum</i> wurde durch Oppenheim im Rahmen der Entwicklung seiner „homomorphic system theory“ eingeführt.<sup id="cite_ref-AVOppenheim_1965_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AVOppenheim_1965-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AVOppenheim_1975_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AVOppenheim_1975-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die entsprechende Formel wird jedoch auch in anderer Literatur angegeben:<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{c}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log({\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\})\right\}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{c}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log({\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\})\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9d5042d2381306220f5ed275bc1c37480ebdaa50.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:25.713ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{c}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log({\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\})\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Da <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/205d4b91000d9dcf1a5bbabdfa6a8395fa60b676.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.927ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}" loading="lazy"></span> komplexe Werte liefert, kann man <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/205d4b91000d9dcf1a5bbabdfa6a8395fa60b676.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.927ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}" loading="lazy"></span> auch als Produkt von <i>Betrag</i> und <i>Phase</i> darstellen, und im Folgenden – durch den Logarithmus – auch als Summe. Die weitere Vereinfachung ist dann offensichtlich, wenn die Basis e für den Logarithmus verwendet wird:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \log({\mathcal {F}})=\log({\mathcal {|F|\cdot e^{i\phi }}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>log</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
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<mi>log</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \log({\mathcal {F}})=\log({\mathcal {|F|\cdot e^{i\phi }}})}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/153a3cab274d2705afa5b8ba6518cab5d5a36c2c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.349ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \log({\mathcal {F}})=\log({\mathcal {|F|\cdot e^{i\phi }}})}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \log _{e}({\mathcal {F}})=\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+\log _{e}(e^{i\phi })=\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+i\phi }">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>log</mi>
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<mo class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script" stretchy="false">|</mo>
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<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">F</mi>
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<mi>log</mi>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script" stretchy="false">|</mo>
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<mi>i</mi>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \log _{e}({\mathcal {F}})=\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+\log _{e}(e^{i\phi })=\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+i\phi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/30da22cd4df964aff1089e9d2b069542a6632b49.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:48.413ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \log _{e}({\mathcal {F}})=\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+\log _{e}(e^{i\phi })=\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+i\phi }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Damit kann man das <i>Complex Cepstrum</i> auch folgendermaßen schreiben:<sup id="cite_ref-Randall_2017_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randall_2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{c}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+i\phi \right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">F</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{c}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+i\phi \right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7246f33b1d9eb11ad857645be2e592aca801668f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.781ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{c}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log _{e}({\mathcal {|F|}})+i\phi \right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Das <i>Complex Cepstrum</i> beinhaltet die Information über die Phasenlage. Daher ist es in diesem Fall möglich, vom Quefrenz-Bereich in den Frequenz-Bereich zurück zu transformieren:<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(t)={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{b^{\left({\mathcal {F}}\{C_{c}\}\right)}\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>f</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(t)={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{b^{\left({\mathcal {F}}\{C_{c}\}\right)}\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e11e0443671c758fb1adf2148c5c1e344dd6fcac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:22.283ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(t)={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{b^{\left({\mathcal {F}}\{C_{c}\}\right)}\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span>, wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>b</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> der verwendeten Basis bei der Logarithmierung entspricht</dd></dl>
<p>Die hauptsächliche Anwendung ist die Modifikation des Signals im Quefrenz-Bereich (liftering) als analoges Vorgehen zur Filterung (filtering) im Frequenzbereich<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Ein Beispiel ist die Reduzierung von Echo-Effekten durch die Unterdrückung der entsprechenden Quefrenzen.<sup id="cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Real_Cepstrum">Real Cepstrum</h2></div>
<p>Das <i>Real Cepstrum</i> leitet sich aus dem <i>Complex Cepstrum</i> ab, indem die Phase auf Null gesetzt wird.<sup id="cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randall_2002-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Das <i>Real Cepstrum</i> konzentriert sich auf periodische Eigenschaften, die im Amplituden-Spektrum sichtbar sind:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{r}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log({\mathcal {|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}|}})\right\}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{r}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log({\mathcal {|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}|}})\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/72e8362bb05192f0f0e68166028152b477c34a53.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:27.036ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{r}={\mathcal {F}}^{-1}\left\{\log({\mathcal {|{\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}|}})\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Und damit ist das <i>Real Cepstrum</i> direkt verwandt mit dem <i>Power Cepstrum</i> (siehe oben):
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{p}=4\cdot C_{r}^{2}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{p}=4\cdot C_{r}^{2}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3e470c1e08d88d8d110e02e783625ec1d5c534bd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.513ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{p}=4\cdot C_{r}^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siehe_auch">Siehe auch</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Mel_Frequency_Cepstral_Coefficients" title="Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients">Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients</a> (MFCC)</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li>K. R. Holland: <i>The Use of Cepstral Analysis in the Interpretation of Loudspeaker Frequency Response Measurements</i>. Proceedings of the Institute of Acoustics, Vol. 15, Part 7, 1993, S. 65–71</li>
<li>S. Wendt, G. A. Fink, und F. Kummert: <i>Vorwärtsmaskierung für cepstrum-basierte Spracherkennungssysteme</i>. In W. Hess und K. Stöber (Hrsg.): <i>Elektronische Sprachsignalverarbeitung</i>, Band 22, Studientexte zur Sprachkommunikation, S. 85–91, Bonn: 2001</li>
<li>A. V. Oppenheim und R. W. Schafer: <i>From Frequency to Quefrency: A History of the Cepstrum</i>. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, Vol. 21, Issue 5, Sept. 2004, S. 95–106</li>
<li>R. B. Randall, J. Hee: <i>Cepstrum Analysis</i>. Brüel & Kjaer Technical Review (<span class="-print"><a href="Internationale_Standardnummer_f%C3%BCr_fortlaufende_Sammelwerke" title="Internationale Standardnummer für fortlaufende Sammelwerke">ISSN</a> <span style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zdb-katalog.de/list.xhtml?t=iss%3D%220007-2621%22&key=cql">0007-2621</a></span></span>) Nr. 3, 1981</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.libinst.com/cepst.htm">Anwendung auf Echos</a></li>
<li>Anwendung auf Spracherkennung: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clear.rice.edu/elec532/PROJECTS98/speech/cepstrum/cepstrum.html">Rice University, Huston Texas: LPC for speech recognition: Cepstrum method, Ethnicity group, May 4 1998</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Bogert_19632-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-2">c</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-3">d</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bogert_19632_1-4">e</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">B. P. Bogert, M. J. R. Healy, und J. W. Tukey: "The Quefrency Alanysis [sic] of Time Series for Echoes: Cepstrum, Pseudo Autocovariance, Cross-Cepstrum and Saphe Cracking". <i>Proceedings of the Symposium on Time Series Analysis</i> (M. Rosenblatt, Ed) Chapter 15, 209-243. New York: Wiley, 1963.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Norton_2003-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-2">c</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-3">d</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-4">e</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-5">f</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-6">g</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-7">h</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-8">i</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-9">j</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-10">k</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-11">l</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-12">m</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Norton_2003_2-13">n</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="book">Michael Peter Norton, Denis Karczub: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Fundamentals of Noise and Vibration Analysis for Engineers</cite>. Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-49913-5 (englisch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jDeRCSqtev4C">google.com</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Cepstrum&rft.au=Michael+Peter+Norton%2C+Denis+Karczub&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Noise+and+Vibration+Analysis+for+Engineers&rft.date=2003-11-17&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0521499135&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press" style="display:none"> </span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Childers_1977-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-2">c</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-3">d</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-4">e</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-5">f</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-6">g</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-7">h</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Childers_1977_3-8">i</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">D. G. Childers, D. P. Skinner, R. C. Kemerait, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1455016">The Cepstrum: A Guide to Processing</a>", <i>Proceedings of the IEEE</i>, Vol. 65, No. 10, October 1977, pp. 1428–1443.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Randall_2002-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-2">c</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Randall_2002_4-3">d</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bksv.com/media/doc/233-80.pdf">R.B. Randall: Cepstrum Analysis and Gearbox Fault Diagnosis, Brüel&Kjaer Application Notes 233-80, Edition 2</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Beckhoff-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Beckhoff_5-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Beckhoff_5-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://infosys.beckhoff.com/english.php?content=../content/1033/tf3600_tc3_condition_monitoring/27021598926718347.html&id=">Beckhoff information system: TF3600 TC3 Condition Monitoring: Gearbox monitoring (online, 4. April 2020)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-AVOppenheim_1965-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-AVOppenheim_1965_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">A. V. Oppenheim, "Superposition in a class of nonlinear systems" Ph.D. diss., Res. Lab. Electronics, M.I.T. 1965.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-AVOppenheim_1975-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-AVOppenheim_1975_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">A. V. Oppenheim, R. W. Schafer, "Digital Signal Processing", 1975 (Prentice Hall).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Randall_2017-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Randall_2017_8-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">R. B. Randall:, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://surveillance7.sciencesconf.org/conference/surveillance7/01_a_history_of_cepstrum_analysis_and_its_application_to_mechanical_problems.pdf">"A history of cepstrum analysis and its application to mechanical problems"</a>, in: Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Volume 97, December 2017 (Elsevier).</span>
</li>
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